What Is the Federal Reserve?

Image shows a picture of a large financial building with four circular icons below it, one of a person pumping air into a balloon emblazoned with the symbol for the U.S. dollar, one with a person peering through a scope at a bank, one with a person holding up a line from a line graph, and a bank building, representing a headline that reads, "What the Federal Reserve Does," and text that reads, "manages inflation, supervises the banking system, maintains the stability of the financial system, provides banking services"
Photo:

The Balance / Ellen Lindner

Definition

The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the U.S. The Fed supervises the nation's largest banks, conducts monetary policy, and provides financial services to the U.S. government. It also promotes the stability of the financial system.

Key Takeaways

  • The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States.
  • The Fed manages inflation, regulates the national banking system, stabilizes financial markets, protects consumers, and more.
  • Although the Fed board members are appointed by the president, it is designed to function independently of political influence.
  • The Fed plays a significant role in financial concerns that affect the lives of all Americans.

The Federal Reserve Defined

The Federal Reserve is the central banking system of the United States, and it has been around for over a century.

The Panic of 1907 spurred President Woodrow Wilson to create the Federal Reserve System. He called for a National Monetary Commission to evaluate the best response to prevent ongoing financial panics, bank failures, and business bankruptcies. Congress then passed the Federal Reserve Act of 1913.

Congress originally designed the Fed to "provide for the establishment of Federal Reserve banks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes." 

Since then, Congress has enacted legislation to expand the Fed's powers and purpose. Today, the Fed enacts monetary policy to manage inflation, maximize employment, and stabilize interest rates. It also oversees the banking system to protect consumers. We'll look at these tasks in greater depth below.

How Does the Federal Reserve Work?

To understand how the Fed works, you must know its structure. The Federal Reserve System has three primary components:

  • The seven members of the board of governors guide the entire Fed system. They direct monetary policy and set the discount rate for member banks. Staff economists provide all analyses.
  • The 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks work with the board to supervise the nation's commercial banks and implement policy.
  • The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) oversees open market operations. The seven board members, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and four of the remaining 11 regional bank presidents are members. The FOMC meets eight times a year.

Congress created the Fed's board structure to ensure its independence from politics. Board members serve staggered terms of 14 years each. The president appoints a new one every two years, and the U.S. Senate confirms them. If the staggered schedule is followed, then no president or congressional party majority can control the board.

Note

The Fed's independence is critical. With autonomy, the central bank can focus on long-term economic goals, making decisions based solely on economic indicators.

What Does the Federal Reserve Do?

The Federal Reserve has four main functions:

  • Manage inflation: This is the Fed's most visible function. As part of this function, the Fed also promotes maximum employment and ensures interest rates remain moderate over time.
  • Supervise the banking system: The Fed supervises and regulates the nation’s largest banks and enacts laws to protect consumers.
  • Maintain the stability of the financial system: It maintains the stability of the financial markets and constrains potential crises.
  • Provide banking services: The Fed provides services to other banks, the U.S. government, and foreign banks.

Here's a look at each of these in turn.

Manage Inflation

The Fed manages inflation while promoting maximum employment and stable interest rates. The Fed sets a 2% inflation target for the core inflation rate. The core rate strips out volatile food and gasoline prices because they have a wider range of volatility. On Aug. 27, 2020, the Fed announced it would tolerate inflation above 2% in the short term if it maximized employment. The Fed uses the Personal Consumption Expenditures Price Index (PCE) to measure inflation.

The Fed has many powerful tools at its disposal for this purpose. Its most powerful tool is setting the target for the federal funds rate, which guides interest rates.

If a bank doesn't have enough cash on hand at the end of the day, it borrows what it needs from other banks. The funds it borrows are known as federal funds. Banks charge each other the federal funds rate on these loans.

Note

Knowledge of the current fed funds rate is important because this rate is a benchmark in financial markets. Many interest rates are based upon the fed funds rate.

The Federal Reserve uses expansionary monetary policy when it lowers interest rates. This makes loans cheaper, spurs business growth, and reduces unemployment.

The opposite, when the Fed raises interest rates, is known as contractionary monetary policy. High interest rates make borrowing expensive, and increased loan costs slow growth and keep prices low.

The FOMC sets the target for the fed funds rate. Banks set their own effective fed funds rate. To keep it near its target, the Fed uses open market operations to buy or sell securities from its member banks. That adds to the reserves the banks can lend and results in the lowering of the fed funds rate.

Supervise the Banking System

The Federal Reserve Banking System is a network of 12 Federal Reserve banks under the supervision of the board of governors. These 12 banks supervise and serve as banks for commercial banks in their region.

Note

The 12 Federal Reserve regional banks are located in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Dallas, Kansas City, Minneapolis, New York, Philadelphia, Richmond, St. Louis, and San Francisco.

The Reserve Banks serve the U.S. Treasury by handling its payments, selling government securities, and assisting with its cash management and investment activities. Reserve banks also conduct valuable research on economic issues.

Maintain the Stability of the Financial System

The 2008 financial crisis revealed regulations on individual banks weren’t enough. The financial system had become so interconnected that the Fed, and other regulators, needed to look at it as a whole.

The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 strengthened the Fed's ability to maintain stability. Each bank with over $50 billion in assets had to submit a "living will" to the Fed outlining its financial health and ability to handle a crisis. This was to prevent another bankruptcy on the scale of Lehman Brothers.

Note

In 2018, Congress waived Dodd-Frank regulations on banks with less than $10 billion in assets.

The Fed's Large Institution Supervision Coordinating Committee (LISCC) regulates the largest and most systematically important banks. It conducts stress tests to determine whether the banks have enough capital to make loans even in a financial crisis.

Provide Banking Services

The Fed is called the "banks' bank" because each Reserve Bank stores currency, processes checks, and makes loans for its members to meet their reserve requirements when needed. These loans are made through the discount window.

Banks are charged the discount rate, which is a little higher than the fed funds rate. Most banks avoid using the discount window because there is a stigma attached. It is assumed the bank can't get loans from other banks—that's why the Federal Reserve is also known as the bank of last resort.

Who Owns the Fed?

Member commercial banks own the Federal Reserve by holding shares of the 12 Federal Reserve banks. This ownership doesn't give them any power because they can't vote.

Note

The board and FOMC make the Fed's decisions independently based on research.

The president, U.S. Treasury Department, and Congress don't ratify the Fed's decisions, although the board members are selected by the president and approved by the Senate. This gives elected officials control over the Fed's long-term direction but not its day-to-day operations.

What's the Role of the Fed Chair?

The Federal Reserve chair sets the direction and tone of both the Federal Reserve Board and the FOMC. Chairman Jerome Powell, a Fed board member, began his term as chair on Feb. 5, 2018.

The previous chair was Janet Yellen, who subsequently became the Secretary of the Treasury. Her term ran from 2014 to 2018. Yellen's biggest concern was unemployment, which made her more likely to want to lower interest rates. Ironically, she was the chair when the economy required contractionary monetary policy. 

Ben Bernanke served as chair from 2006 to 2014. He was an expert on the Fed's role during the Great Depression, which helped him take steps to end the 2008 financial crisis. This helped keep the economic situation from turning into a depression.

How the Fed Affects You

The Federal Reserve has a significant impact on the lives of all Americans. The press scrutinizes the Federal Reserve for clues on how the economy is performing and what the FOMC and board of governors plan to do about it. The Fed directly affects your stock and bond mutual funds, as well as your loan rates. By having such an influence on the economy, the Fed also indirectly affects your home's value and even your chances of being laid off or rehired.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

How is the chair of the Federal Reserve chosen?

The president chooses the Fed chairman, and then the Senate must confirm the president's choice.

Where is the Federal Reserve located?

The headquarters of the Federal Reserve are in Washington, D.C. The reserve bank locations are in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco.

Does the Federal Reserve print money?

The Fed does not print money. The U.S. Treasury is the institution that prints money.

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Sources
The Balance uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
  1. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "101st Annual Report: 2014," Page 37.

  2. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Federal Reserve Act."

  3. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "The Fed Explained: What the Central Bank Does," Pages 7-8, 12-13.

  4. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Why Is It Important To Separate Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Decisions From Political Influence?"

  5. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "The Fed Explained: What the Central Bank Does."

  6. The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Federal Open Market Committee Announces Approval of Updates to Its Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy.”

  7. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "What Is Inflation and How Does the Federal Reserve Evaluate Changes in the Rate of Inflation?"

  8. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Open Market Operations."

  9. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Federal Reserve Banks."

  10. U.S. Congress. "H.R. 4173 - Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act."

  11. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. "Resolving 'Too Big to Fail,'" Page 4.

  12. Congress.gov. "S.2155 - Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief, and Consumer Protection Act."

  13. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "SR 20-30: Financial Institutions Subject to the LISCC Supervisory Program."

  14. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Why Does the Federal Reserve Lend Money to Banks?

  15. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. "Who Owns Reserve Banks?"

  16. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Board Members."

  17. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Jerome H. Powell, Chair.”

  18. Federal Reserve History. "Janet L. Yellen."

  19. Federal Reserve History. "Ben S. Bernanke."

  20. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "Board Members."

  21. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. "Does the Federal Reserve Print Money?"

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