What Was Brexit, and How Did It Impact the UK, the EU, and the US?

Brexit
Campaigners join Nigel Farage, leader of the UK Independence Party, in their support for the 'Leave' campaign for the EU Referendum aboard a boat on the River Thames on June 15, 2016 in London, England. Photo: Photo by Michael Tubi/Corbis via Getty Images

On December 31, 2020, the transition period for the United Kingdom (U.K.) to withdraw from the European Union (EU), otherwise known as "Brexit," officially came to an end. This marked the end of a years-long process that was overseen by two different Prime Ministers, included several delays and extensions, and left the U.K. divided.

What Was Brexit?

Brexit was the nickname for "British exit" from the EU, the economic and policy union of which the U.K. had been a member since 1973. That changed on June 23, 2016, when the U.K. voted to leave the EU. The residents decided that the benefits of free trade weren't enough to offset the costs of free movement of immigration. The vote was 17.4 million in favor of leaving vs. 16.1 million who voted to remain.

Key Takeaways

  • Brexit is the nickname for "British exit" from the EU.
  • It took four years to complete after the 2016 vote.
  • A new trade agreement between the U.K. and EU retains their tariff-free status.
  • Constraints on immigration could hurt the U.K.'s labor force. 
  • The U.K. could lose Scotland, which may opt to join the EU.

What Caused Brexit?

In 2015, the Conservative Party called for the referendum. Most of the pro-Brexit voters were older, working-class residents of England's countryside. They were afraid of the free movement of immigrants and refugees, claiming in the process that citizens of poorer countries were taking jobs and benefits.

Small businesses were also frustrated by EU fees. Others felt leaving the EU would create jobs. Many felt the U.K. paid more into the EU than it received.

Those who voted to stay in the EU primarily lived in London, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. They liked free trade with the EU, and claimed most EU immigrants were young and eager to work. Most felt that leaving the EU would damage the U.K.’s global status.

Brexit Process

Leaving the EU was a complicated process. Former U.K. Prime Minister Theresa May, following the voters' will, submitted the Article 50 withdrawal notification to the EU on March 29, 2017. She negotiated a withdrawal agreement with the EU that outlined their new relationship but couldn't get approval from a divided Parliament.

In July 2019, Boris Johnson succeeded May as the U.K.'s Prime Minister. Johnson’s Conservative Party subsequently attained a majority during a royally mandated general election on December 12, 2019. That allowed him to get Parliament's approval of the Withdrawal Agreement he negotiated with the EU.

On January 23, 2020, the Agreement Act received the necessary legislative Royal Assent, which is when the Queen formally agrees to make the bill into law. The U.K. formally left the EU on January 31, 2020, but entered a transition process that ended on December 31, 2020. The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was agreed to on December 24, 2020 (and signed on December 30).

Brexit Trade and Cooperation Agreement Summary

The Trade and Cooperation Agreement has three main pillars: trade, cooperation, and governance that took effect on January 1, 2021. Notably, the agreement does not cover foreign policy and defense.

Trade

The U.K. is no longer part of the customs union and single market with the EU. Instead, it has a trade agreement that allows zero tariffs and zero quotas on goods traded that comply with the appropriate rules of origin.

Note

Brexit put a big strain on the relations of U.K. member Northern Ireland with its neighbor, the Republic of Ireland, an EU member. The new agreement allows Northern Ireland to adopt EU customs rules so there isn't a hard border between the two adjacent countries. Instead, there is a customs and regulatory border between Great Britain and Northern Ireland in the Irish Sea.

Free movement between the U.K. and EU has ended. European nationals already living in the U.K. must make sure they have documents from the U.K. government specifically allowing them to remain.

Travelers between the EU and the U.K. must have passports ready to show at the border. Business travelers have additional requirements. If they do business regularly in an EU country, they may need to set up a local subsidiary. Many services, such as telecommunications, broadcasting, and electronic services, may be taxed.

The U.K. must pay a "divorce bill" of approximately 34 billion pounds by 2064. This is to fulfill any remaining financial commitments made while a member of the EU.

Security

While EU law no longer applies to the U.K., the latter will cooperate with the EU on law enforcement and criminal justice matters.

Governance

The agreement established a Joint Partnership Council to make sure the agreement is properly applied and interpreted. This includes dispute settlement, legal enforcement, and rules for retaliation if needed.

How Did Brexit Impact the UK?

The U.K. has already suffered from Brexit. The economy has slowed, and many businesses have moved their headquarters to the EU. Here are some of the impacts on growth and jobs. There would also be consequences specific to Ireland, London, and Scotland.

Growth

Brexit's biggest disadvantage is its damage to the U.K.'s economic growth. Most of this has been due to the uncertainty surrounding the final outcome.

Uncertainty over Brexit slowed the U.K.'s growth from 2.4% in 2015 to 1.6% in 2019. The U.K. government estimated that Brexit would lower the U.K.’s growth by up to 6.7% over 15 years. It assumed the current terms of free trade but restricted immigration. 

The British pound fell from $1.48 on the day of the referendum to $1.36 the next day. That helps exports but increases the prices of imports. It has not regained its pre-Brexit high.

Jobs

Brexit hurts Britain's younger workers. Germany is projected to have a labor shortage of 3 million skilled workers by 2030. Those jobs won't be as readily available to the U.K.'s workers after Brexit.

Employers are having a harder time finding applicants. One reason is that EU-born workers left the U.K., their numbers falling by 95% in 2017. This has hit the low-skilled and medium-skilled occupations the most. 

Trade

The U.K. must negotiate new trade agreements with countries outside of the EU, which had more than 45 trade agreements with over 70 countries already in place.

Ireland

Northern Ireland remains with the U.K. The Republic of Ireland, with which it shares a border, stays a part of the EU. The agreement avoids a customs border between the two Irish countries.

A customs border could have reignited The Troubles, which was a 30-year conflict in Northern Ireland between mainly Catholic Irish nationalists and pro-British Protestants. In 1998, it ended with the promise of no border between Northern Ireland and Ireland. A customs border would have forced about 9,300 commuters to go through customs on their way to and from work and school.

London

Brexit has already depressed growth in the U.K.'s financial center of London, which saw only 1.4% in 2018 and was close to zero in 2019. Brexit also diminished business investment by 11% between 2016 and 2019.

International companies are less likely to use London as an English-speaking entry into the EU economy. Barclay's moved 5,000 clients to its Irish subsidiary, while Goldman Sachs, JP Morgan, and Morgan Stanley switched 10% of their clients. Bank of America has also transferred 100 bankers to its Dublin office and 400 to a broker dealer unit in Paris. 

Scotland

Scotland voted against Brexit. The Scottish government believed that staying in the EU was the best for Scotland and the U.K. It had been pushing the U.K. government to allow for a second referendum.

To leave the U.K., Scotland would have to call a referendum on independence. It could then apply for EU membership on its own.

The Brexit Vote

In summary, the Brexit vote imposed these three hard choices on the U.K.:

  1. Leave with no deal, known as "no-deal Brexit." Without a trade agreement, ports would be blocked and airlines grounded. In no time, imported food and drugs would run short.
  2. Vote again on Brexit. Many argue that voters did not understand the economic hardships that Brexit would impose. On December 10, 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled that the U.K. could unilaterally revoke its Brexit application to remain in the EU. 
  3. Approve a negotiated deal. The sticking point had been the nature of the border between the U.K.’s Northern Ireland and the EU’s Republic of Ireland. 

How Did Brexit Impact the EU?

Brexit is a vote against globalization. As a result, it has weakened forces in the EU that favor integration. Members of right-wing, anti-immigration parties are particularly anti-EU in France and Germany. If they gained enough ground, they could force an anti-EU vote. If either of those countries left, the EU would lose its most robust economies and would dissolve.

On the other hand, the majority of EU citizens still strongly support the union. In a Pew Research Center survey across 10 European nations, almost 75% say the EU promotes peace, and 55% believe it supports prosperity. In addition, more than a third see the role of the U.K. as diminishing. 

How Did Brexit Impact the US?

Brexit threw into uncertainty the status of London as a global financial center. U.S. stability, though, means London's loss could be New York's gain.

Note

The long-term effects of Brexit could be positive for the U.S.   

The day after the Brexit vote, the currency markets were in turmoil. The euro fell by 2% to $1.11. The pound fell by 8% to $1.36. Both increased the value of the dollar. That strength is not good for U.S. stock markets. It makes American shares more expensive for foreign investors. 

A weak pound also makes U.S. exports to the U.K. more expensive, although that hasn't slowed exports. In 2019, U.S. exports to the U.K. were $147.4 billion, up from $141 billion in 2018. That's created a $21.8 billion trade surplus. Meanwhile, imports were only $125.6 billion.

Brexit dampened business growth for companies that operate in Europe. U.S. companies invested $851.4 billion in the U.K. in 2019. Most of this was in the finance and insurance sector, as well as manufacturing and nonbank holding companies. These U.S. companies previously used the U.K. as the gateway to free trade with the EU nations. U.K. businesses, on the other hand, invested $505.1 billion in the U.S. in 2019, up 1.7% from 2018. Most of this was in manufacturing, wholesale trade, and finance.

The U.K. was in the process of negotiating a trade deal with the U.S. in early 2021, but these negotiations have since been on hold. The biggest stumbling block is agriculture. The U.K. requires greater food safety and animal welfare regulations than the U.S. does. U.K. farmers are concerned about inferior, cheaper agriculture products putting them out of business.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

When did Brexit talks start?

There was tension between the U.K. and the EU throughout the history of their relationship. It culminated in Prime Minister David Cameron's announcement in February 2016 that there would be a referendum to decide whether the U.K. would remain in the EU or leave it. The vote was held on June 23, 2016. After 52% of voters opted in favor of leaving, formal discussions about how this would take place began in February 2017, after Parliament passed legislation to begin the process.

Why is Brexit important?

Brexit changes the nature of the formal relationship between the U.K. and the EU and throws London's place as a global financial center into question. It creates new trade restrictions between the U.K. and the rest of Europe and limits the ability of British citizens to move as freely around the EU. These are only a few of the significant effects of Brexit, and the full impact has yet to unfold.

Who supported Brexit?

Brexit was supported by a narrow majority of voters in the 2016 referendum, but support has continued to grow since then. It's generally favored by conservative and populist voters, but it also has drawn broad support from low-wage, low-skilled voters who felt left out of Europe's changing economy.

Was this page helpful?
Sources
The Balance uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
  1. UK Parliament, House of Commons Library. "Brexit Timeline: Events Leading to the UK's Exit From the European Union."

  2. The Electoral Commission. “Results and Turnout at the EU Referendum.”

  3. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. "Brexit Vote Explained: Poverty, Low Skills and Lack of Opportunities."

  4. U.K. House of Commons Library. “Brexit Timeline: Events Leading to the UK’s Exit from the European Union," Pages 12, 63, 74.

  5. European Council/Council of the European Union. "EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement: Council Adopts Decision on the Signing."

  6. European Commission. "EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement: Protecting European Interests, Ensuring Fair Competition, and Continued Cooperation in Areas of Mutual Interest."

  7. U.K. Government Publishing Service. "UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement," Pages 5, 8.

  8. U.K. Parliament. “The October 2019 EU U.K. Withdrawal Agreement.”

  9. Gov.UK. "Continue to Live in the UK if You're and EU, EEA, or Swiss Citizen."

  10. European Commission, Directorate-General for Communication. "Providing Services Abroad."

  11. UK Parliament, House of Commons Library. "Brexit: The Financial Settlement - In Detail."

  12. Gov.UK. "UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement," Pages 25- 28.

  13. UK Parliament, House of Commons Library. "Slowing Economic Growth, Brexit and the Productivity Challenge."

  14. U.K. Office for National Statistics. "Gross Domestic Product: Q-on-Q4 Growth Rate CVM SA%."

  15. U.K. House of Commons Library. “Brexit Deal: Potential Economic Impact."

  16. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Historical Rates for the U.K. Pound.”

  17. McKinsey Global Institute. “Report: What the Future of Work Will Mean for Jobs, Skills, and Wages: Jobs Lost, Jobs Gained,” Page 72.

  18. CIPD. “Labour Market Outlook, Summer 2018," Page 2.

  19. European Commission. "Trade - Negotiations and Agreements."

  20. Republic of Ireland Central Statistics Office. “Cross-Border Commuters 2016.”

  21. GLA Economics, Greater London Authority. “The Economic Impact of Brexit on London,” Pages 13-14.

  22. GLA Economics, Greater London Authority. “The Economic Impact of Brexit on London," Pages 28-29.

  23. Scottish Government. “Brexit.”

  24. Court of Justice of the European Union. “The United Kingdom Is Free to Revoke Unilaterally the Notification of its Intention to Withdraw from the EU,” Pages 1-2.

  25. Pew Research Center. “Europeans Credit EU With Promoting Peace and Prosperity.”

  26. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. “Historical Rates for the EU Euro.”

  27. Office of the United States Trade Representative. "United Kingdom."

  28. Congressional Research Service. "Brexit and Outlook for a U.S.-U.K. Free Trade Agreement," Page 2.

  29. Library of Congress. "BREXIT: Sources of Information."

Related Articles